A study of digital campaigns show traffic targeting 10 DMAs mapped well to those geographies.  Exceptions are some datacenter traffic, and micro-targeting.  Zooming in, local “freckles” of hundreds of IP addresses were shown to have the same geo-location, and not the exact user GPS location — desktop, mobile, and tablet shared the same clusters of geo-locations.

Co-Author: Dr. Augustine Fou – Cybersecurity and Ad Fraud Researcher